The Yew Tree

Animals represent instinctual wisdom, freedom, and the powers of Nature. They represent different spiritual qualities; each of us has an animal self whose wisdom we can draw on in times of need. This animal self is not an enemy to be conquered, but a potential ally - to live instinctually is to live in harmony with Nature. This is why Taoist philosophy often uses stories of animals to impart its wisdom. Similarly, folklore and mythology from all over the world is full of animal stories, and many (if not most) deities have animal totems associated with them. The animals, birds, trees, and places connected with each deity link all Nature in a web of symbols, showing that everything depends on everything else. The animal represents the power of the deity at work in the world, a visible manifestation of the numinous.

However, animal symbolism and mythology have not always been used for the enhancement of the psyche. Myths have also been used for ideological purposes. It is a mistake to regard myth as universal and timeless, the same archetype cropping up again and again in various different cultures and eras, but with inherently the same archetypal meaning. Not only does this view represent blatant cultural arrogance, it is also a gross oversimplification, and has been used to put forward the idea that myths are 'natural' and can therefore be used to justify either the status quo or some new ideology. An apparently apolitical idea can be used to support two totally different political agendas.

Myth is, on one level, an interpretation of historical events in an allegorical manner. Whether these events involve a political manoeuvre, a shift in consciousness, or a natural event, a myth will be evoked to explain and/or justify them. For example, an invading people bringing a new pantheon would marry off all their deities to the conquered people's deities (e.g. the Aesir intermarried with the Vanir in Norse mythology); or a new discovery such as fire, which must have provoked a shift in consciousness, as it gave humans apparent mastery over an element, was mythologised in the legend of Prometheus, or the legend of a bird or animal which fetched fire for humans; or earthquakes, which were explained as the Celestial Bull tossing the Earth on its horns. Equally history, by selecting features of the past which are deemed significant, and ignoring other aspects, has mythical content. For example, history was taught in English schools as if England were the centre of the world, and as if kings and queens and battles defined their epochs. There was no attempt to examine the history of ideas, or to encourage people to exercise their critical and interpretative faculties. If we are to see history and mythology in a sensible light, however, it is necessary not to abandon our critical awareness. The interpretation of myth and symbol should be deeply personal. There is no absolute system of magical correspondences; each culture, each person, can develop their own symbol-systems. Each individual relationship to the landscape and spirit of place will be different in each locale. Just as a poet or a musician creatively interprets metaphor or music, so the magician should creatively embroider upon the tapestry of Wyrd. Magic is an Art, not a science. It is when we begin to take myth literally that the trouble starts; when we project mythical scenarios onto external situations instead of using them creatively within ourselves.

When reading a book on the subject of myth, then, it is important to be aware of the fluidity of the subject matter, and the cultural context of the symbol or myth being discussed. This is particularly relevant when thinking about a subject such as animal sacrifice. Clearly our ancestors did engage in this practice, which we are inclined to regard as barbaric. Vegetarians are of course entitled to this view; but meat-eaters might need to consider before condemning our ancestors' customs. As most forms of sacrifice involved the sharing of the animal's flesh as a communal meal afterwards, there is little difference between a sacrifice and the practice of eating roast beef on a Sunday (except that the sacrificial animal was probably reared and killed more humanely than the average modern cow). I am not suggesting the revival of sacrifice, merely that it is important to be aware of the cultural context of a custom in order to see it in a balanced perspective. Similarly, it is important not to remove the concept of the totem animal from its cultural context, and act as if it is the same in every culture - the differences are at least as significant as the similarities. (This is discussed at length in a chapter on totem animals.) In addition, there is no point in pretending that our ancestors lived in a politically correct and environmentally friendly manner. (For example, the Iron Age Celts, whom we love to think of as dreamy bards, mystical shamans, and honourable warriors, were an extremely warlike bunch of head-hunters. They had a slightly better attitude to women than some of their contemporaries, in that they were prepared to listen to a woman's opinion - unlike the ancient Greeks, who were by all accounts just about as misogynist as it was possible to be.) In this book, therefore, I have not tried to edit out the more gruesome bits of information about animals, and the strange things humans have done to them in the name of the sacred. It is counterproductive to inform the reader that the pig was sacred to Demeter without also mentioning that it was sacrificed to her, as the two facts are closely related. Our ancestors did not live in a pastoral idyll; on the other hand, nor were their lives necessarily "nasty, brutish, and short". Our current cultural background is the accumulation of our ancestors' experience, constantly augmented by our own experience. Our ancestors are part of what we are, and we cannot deny their legacy - to do so would be to relegate it to the realm of the Shadow, where it could wreak havoc if left untended. (Look to the rock whence ye are hewn, and to the hole of the pit whence ye are digged.) If, however, we acknowledge both their strengths and their weaknesses, we may yet regain something that we have left by the wayside. For example, being much less "rational" than we are, their view of reality was much more fluid than our own; since they believed in magic, it was much easier for seemingly impossible things to occur, as they did not have to struggle against a consensus view that magic was impossible. Aleister Crowley once said that magic was much easier in the middle of the Mexican desert (where the consensus reality of the inhabitants allowed for the possibility) than in "civilised" countries (where consensus reality was much more rigid). The same idea was simply but aptly expressed by J M Barrie in Peter Pan, when Peter Pan says that Tinkerbell the fairy will cease to exist if children stop believing in her.

So how should we approach the magical lore of animals in our own day and age? Many people are drawn to the idea of totem animals, establishing a kinship with a particular animal, and learning from its characteristics (both actual and symbolic). This is obviously a much more fruitful avenue to explore than the exploitative one of sacrifice. However, it is important not to anthropomorphise animals. They are sentient beings, but they have a different consciousness from our own. When dealing with animals, therefore, one should never assume that they are exactly the same as a human; nor, conversely, treat them like an inanimate thing. Even scientists are now beginning to admit that animals have consciousness, as there are two forms of awareness, the unconscious proprioceptive senses, and the capacity to compare incoming visual data with stored memories. Animals demonstrably have this capability, and therefore it is likely that they have consciousness. Anyone who has observed the behaviour of or formed a close rapport with an animal does not need a scientist to tell them this, of course.

The animal spirits which reach out to humans in the form of totem animals may be powerful guardians of the land, like the Aboriginal Ancestors of the Dreamtime; or the spirits of living animals; or they may be the animal aspects of the human psyche resurfacing from the pre-conscious mind. For example, it is possible to access the reptilian aspects of the mind (said to correspond to the limbic system in the brain, which deals with sensory impressions, pleasure and pain) by meditating on the various qualities of reptiles and their mythical associations. Fish are associated with the unconscious, in that they live in the sea, which symbolises the deep mind. Frogs and toads are generally associated with the sensual aspects of the earth, the underworld, and sexuality. Their amphibious qualities led them to be associated with the ability to exist on more than one level, so they also symbolise the incarnation of spirit in matter. The serpent is also associated with the earth and the underworld, representing the sinuous qualities of earth energies; it is associated with healing (Asklepios, Greek god of healing, had a snake entwined about his staff) and wisdom (Hermes and Mercury had as their attribute the caduceus, with two serpents entwined about it). The mammalian aspects of mind (generally regarded as corresponding to the thalamus and the hypothalamus) are associated with the emotions, a sense of community, and instinctual wisdom. The mammalian mind is more complex and multifarious, so that different mammals hold widely different symbolic meanings.

Another way of developing the animal aspects of the mind is to use the shamanistic technique of dressing as an animal, in order to acquire its characteristics. This practice survived into the dances of the medieval mummers (though its original meaning may have been forgotten), who often dressed as hares and other sacred animals.

Animals themselves frequently have an instinctual awareness of people's personalities. This awareness is perhaps similar to what we experience as a "gut feeling", a kind of pre-cognitive knowledge. We can learn to develop this awareness in ourselves by being aware of animals' responses to people.

In the past, animals were used as "cures" for various diseases. Some of these practices were extremely dodgy (e.g. fried mice as a cure for whooping cough). The therapeutic benefits of having animals around have been confirmed by research, however - it has been observed by psychologists that stroking a cat or a dog will lower a person's blood pressure and reduce stress.

The companionship of animals is an ancient pleasure. Since cats and dogs first moved in with humans, and various animals were domesticated, humans have shared their lives with animals. The ancient Egyptians regarded the cat as sacred, so much so that the penalty for killing a cat was death.

Humans have also hunted animals for food and clothing. Many of the early rituals of humans were acts of sympathetic magic for success in the hunt. The spirits of the animals had to be propitiated, in order that they would not exact vengeance; the animals' remains had to be buried in a certain way, to ensure that their spirits could reach the underworld; and the guardian deity of the hunt would be invoked to provide plentiful game.

In modern Paganism, we tend to regard Nature and Nature spirits as wholly benevolent, in dialectical opposition to the supposed orthodox Christian view that Nature is 'fallen' and sinful. However, the traditional view was more complex, and being older than Christianity, did not particularly take account of Christian orthodoxy (since most people did not have access to the Bible, a popular Christianity developed which was a hybrid of popular magic and Christian belief). In traditional thought, there is a creative tension between the view of humans as separate from nature and of humans as a part of nature. Western culture is beginning, with a growing ecological awareness, to recognise the value of the traditional world view. However, this world view does not necessarily regard nature spirits as entirely benevolent; they may be indifferent to humans or even hostile, though some are friendly and helpful. On the whole it is recognised that these beings are pursuing an entirely different agenda from our own, which is sometimes in accord with our desires, and sometimes not. In Scottish folklore, for example, there is a whole class of water beings (usually occupying freshwater lakes) which may be malevolent, though some are helpful. The kelpie was a water spirit usually seen in the form of a young horse running along a river bank. When tired, it would strike the water three times with its tail, so heavily that each lash of its tail sounded like a crash of thunder; it would then disappear like a flash of fire into a deep pool. The kelpie also possessed a magic bridle, with which it enchanted people by looking at them through the eyelets of the bit. A magician could undo such enchantments by looking through the eyelet holes in the opposite direction; the kelpie's bridle could also be used in this manner to see elves, fairies, and other spirits. A kelpie's bridle was obtained by Seumas MacGregor, who lost his horse by Loch Slochd, and mistaking a passing kelpie for his horse, mounted it, only to find that it was trying to carry him off into the depths of the loch. So he called on the Trinity to save him, whereupon the kelpie threw him off, and he was left holding its bridle, which was passed down in the MacGregor family as a magical heirloom. There are also legends of water bulls and water cows. These spirits are not helpful, and may even be malevolent, but their magical qualities may be harnessed by humans for helpful purposes.

Both wild and domestic animals are rich in symbolic associations, which have developed over the centuries and cultures into an immense heritage of mythology and folklore. In our dealings with animals, it is well to be aware of their symbolic meaning as well as their characteristics, habitat, and position in the eco-system. Many of our attitudes to species affect our dealings with them. For example, when the wolf was regarded as a rapacious predator with no redeeming qualities (as in the Big Bad Wolf in the tale of The Three Little Pigs), it was hunted to extinction. Nowadays it is beginning to be seen as a symbol of freedom and the vanishing wilderness, representing the wisdom of instinct - partly because its social habits have been studied by naturalists. Because of this change in perception, there is talk of reintroducing the wolf to areas where it had become extinct, such as Scotland. The symbolism of an animal can change over time, and this will not only affect our dealings with it, but also reflect some change in the culture. The new attitude to the wolf has been constructed from various sources, but it probably represents a shift in tastes towards the truly wild, which is seen as the locus of freedom and individuality - symbolised by the "lone wolf" (although wolves are actually quite sociable animals). By observing such cultural shifts, we can discover a lot about the nature of consciousness and society. Symbolism and myth are never static. They are a constant internal process, fermenting in the vat of consciousness. As C G Jung put it:

"When one reflects on what consciousness really is, one is profoundly impressed by the extreme wonder of the fact that an event which takes place outside in the cosmos simultaneously produces an internal image, that it takes place, so to speak, inside as well, which is to say: becomes conscious."
(Basel Seminar, 1934)

In his autobiography, Jung also put forward the idea that consciousness holds up a mirror to Nature; that perhaps this is the purpose of consciousness, so that Nature may be aware of herself. If this is so, humanity, as the maker and user of symbols (which are the building blocks of consciousness), has a tremendous responsibility, since we shall reap what we sow. When the symbols themselves are autonomous beings such as animals, there is a dual responsibility, since it is also desirable that the symbolic qualities of the animal reflect its actual nature (as we have seen with the example of the wolf).
Those who desire to work with the magical lore of animals need to be aware of these issues, and to treat animals with respect. We share this planet with them, and we are all part of the delicate balance of the environment. We ourselves are animals, though we have tried to divorce ourselves from Nature. We would do well, therefore, to look to the animals for inspiration in our search for ways of living in harmony with Nature.

I think I could turn and live with animals,
they're so placid and self-contained,
I stand and look at them long and long.
They do not sweat and whine about their condition,
They do not lie awake in the dark and weep for their sins,
They do not make me sick discussing their duty to God,
Not one is dissatisfied, not one is demented with the mania of owning things,
Not one kneels to another, nor to his kind that lived thousands of years ago,
Not one is respectable or unhappy over the whole earth.
(from Song of Myself, Walt Whitman, 1819-1892)